Central Kingdoms
Funan (1st to 6th Century AD)
According to Chinese historical records, Funan was founded through a mythical union between an Indian Brahmin named Kaundinya and a local Naga princess. Kaundinya arrived by sea, carrying a divine bow, and established a ruling dynasty. This founding myth symbolizes early Hindu-Brahmanic influence and legitimizes Indian authority through spiritual power.
Centered around the Mekong Delta, it was known in the ancient languages of the region as Suvarnabhumi (Sanskrit), meaning 'land of gold'. The Kingdom of Funan was the first and most powerful Southeast Asian kingdom at the time. The civilization spanned a large area with settlements across what is today Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
Hinduism - especially Shaivism and Vaishnavism - was widely practiced in Funan. Lingams (representing Shiva) and Yonis (representing Shakti, the feminine principle) were common, and temples were dedicated to these deities. Funan produced some of the earliest Sanskrit inscriptions in Southeast Asia, indicating the presence of Indian Brahmins at court who conducted rituals, advised kings, and helped administer Hindu law and governance. These inscriptions reflect Hindu cosmology, royal ideology, and devotional practices.
Funan cities and temples followed Indian models, including Mount Meru symbolism, Vastu principles (sacred architecture), and iconographic depictions of Hindu deities. Early sculpture from Funan shows clear Gupta-style Indian artistic influence. Funan acted as a conduit for Indian culture, passing Hindu and Buddhist ideas into what would later become the Khmer Empire and Cham Kingdoms of Cambodia and Vietnam.
Dvaravati (6th to 11th Century AD)
Dvaravati was an ancient Mon principality that thrived from the 6th to the 11th century, in what is now central Thailand. Recent dating of artifacts of the Dvaravati culture found at U Thong, suggests that the origins of a cultural tradition that may have extended as far back as 200 AD.
The name "Dvaravati" comes from coins inscribed in Sanskrit with the term "śrī dvāravatī," which means "that which has gates." The Dvaravati culture was centered around moated cities, with sites at U Thong and Nakhon Pathom being some of the earliest.
Dvaravati is believed to have adopted Theravada Buddhism through its interactions with Sri Lanka, while its ruling elite practiced Hindu rites. The art of Dvaravati, including Buddha sculptures and stupas, showed a strong resemblance to the styles of the Gupta Empire in India. In the eastern parts of the Chao Phraya Valley, Hindu influences were more pronounced with inscriptions found in both Khmer and Sanskrit.
By the 10th century, the city-states of Dvaravati began to consolidate into larger mandalas, such as Lavo (modern-day Lopburi) and Suvarnabhumi (modern-day Suphan Buri). Dvaravati culture started to decline around this time, submitting to the more unified Lavo-Khmer polity.
Dvaravati's significance was further diminished with the rise of the Angkor Empire in the lower Mekong basin during the 11th to 13th centuries. By the 14th century, the territories fragmented into the city-state confederations of Suphannabhumi in the west and the Lavo Kingdom in the east.
Lavo (648 AD to 1388 AD)
The Lavo Kingdom was centered around present-day Lopburi. It is said to have been established as a city proper in 648 after two centuries of Mon settlement in the area. The first ruler of the Haripunjaya Kingdom in northern Thailand, was a princess from Lavo. Initially the kingdom was ruled from Lavapura, but later it was moved to Ayodhaya (the precursor to Ayutthaya) from 1082.
In the 10th century, tensions between Lavo and Haripunjaya escalated into war (925–927 AD), weakening both kingdoms and allowing Tambralinga (in present-day southern Thailand) to occupy Lavo. The Tambralinga king installed his son Kampoch as ruler, who solidified legitimacy by marrying the ex-queen of Lavo and later a Khmer princess, forging ties with the Khmer Empire. Despite continued conflict with Haripunjaya, Lavo eventually fell under Khmer control when Suryavarman I - Kampoch’s son with the Khmer princess formally absorbed Lavo into the Khmer Empire in 1022 AD.
As a vassal or ally at various times, Lavo adopted Khmer-style architecture, Sanskrit inscriptions, and Hindu royal ideology. Archaeological evidence from Lopburi includes lingams, yoni, and sculptures of Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma, indicating active Hindu worship, especially among the ruling class. Sanskrit inscriptions found in Lavo attest to the use of Indian language and ritual texts, particularly in royal proclamations and temple dedications. Like many Indianized Southeast Asian states, Lavo’s city layouts and temple complexes followed Hindu cosmological models, such as the Mount Meru-centered universe, reflecting the integration of Hindu sacred geography into urban planning.
By the 13th century, the outer provinces of the Khmer Empire were increasingly populated by Tai peoples (referred to as Syam). Despite intermarriage between Tai and Khmer elites, the Tai preserved their distinct language, social structure, and ethnic identity. Lavo, though politically part of Angkor, retained a strong Siamese character that was rooted in earlier Dvaravati tarditions.
Over time, tensions grew as the Tai began resisting Khmer dominance. In 1239, a group of Tai leaders in the north broke away from Lavo and declared independence, founding the Sukhothai Kingdom. Under King Ram Khamhaeng, Sukhothai rapidly expanded, asserting itself as a major regional power. This expansion significantly reduced Lavo’s territory and influence, confining it to its core area around Lopburi, and marking a turning point in the rise of independent Tai polities in the region.
Ayutthaya (1350 AD to 1767 AD)
The very name "Ayutthaya" was inspired by Ayodhya, the legendary city of Rama in the Hindu epic Ramayana- a text widely revered in Thai culture as the Ramakien. This reflects how Indian mythological and epic traditions were woven into Thai royal ideology and national identity.
Ayutthayan kings adopted many Brahmanic rituals to legitimize their rule, including coronations, royal processions, and astrology-based ceremonies. These were conducted by court Brahmins, who were often descendants of Indian or Khmer Brahmins. These Brahmins were involved in statecraft, ritual, and calendar keeping, and they played a role in preserving Sanskrit texts, Indian astrology, and cosmology. These aspects influenced significantly how the the city was planned, and the royal court was conducted.
The Ayutthaya Kingdom rose to prominence in the 14th century not only as a political and military power, but also as a major trading hub in Southeast Asia. Strategically located near the confluence of the Chao Phraya River and the Gulf of Thailand, Ayutthaya became a natural crossroads for maritime and overland trade routes connecting China, India, the Malay Archipelago, and Europe.
Its capital, Ayutthaya city, developed into a bustling international port where Persian, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, and European merchants established trading quarters. The kingdom exported goods like rice, teak, animal hides, and forest products, while importing luxury items, firearms, and cultural influences. Food items such as papaya, chili, corn, tomatoes, brought by Portuguese merchants significantly influenced the Thai culinary landscape.
The decline of Ayutthaya culminated in the mid-18th century when the newly empowered Burmese Konbaung dynasty launched invasions fueled by a belief that Siam supported local rebels. The first siege in 1759 was lifted but resumed under Hsinbyushin in 1765. The siege escalated over 14 months, resulting in Ayutthaya's fall on April 7, 1767.