Northern Kingdoms
Singhanavati (691 BC - 545 AD)
The Singhanavati Kingdom is believed to have existed in what is now near Chiang Rai. It features prominently in early Thai chronicles such as the Chiang Mai Chronicle and Yonok Chronicle. According to legend, the kingdom was founded by an Indian Brahmin or prince named Sinhanati (also known as Sinhavarman), suggesting a strong connection to Indian lineage.
During this period, northern Thailand was part of a broader Southeast Asian region that experienced significant Indian cultural influence, a process often referred to as Indianization. This influence extended beyond political models to include language (Sanskrit), scripts, royal rituals, and key religious ideas such as divine kingship (Devaraja).
Although direct archeological evidence from Singhanavati itself is scarce, partly due to its semi-legendary nature, the neighboring areas like Chiang Saen and Phayao offer important clues. These regions have yielded Indianized art, lingams (phallic symbols associated with Shiva), and Sanskrit inscriptions, all pointing to a tangible Hindu presence in the region during and after the Singhanavati era.
The Singhanavati Kingdom is believed to have collapsed into Chiang Saen Lake following a devastating earthquake in 545 AD. In the aftermath, surviving communities gradually resettled along the Doi Tung mountain range, establishing new highland settlements. This marked the end of the Singhanavati era and paved the way for the rise of the Hiran-Ngoenyang Kingdom, which would later become a significant power in the region.
Hiran-Ngoenyang (545 AD - 1292 AD)
The Hiran–Ngoenyang Kingdom emerged directly after the fall of the Singhanavati Kingdom, which already had strong Indian and Hindu influences. Nearby sites, particularly around Chiang Saen (considered part of the Ngoenyang area), have produced lingams, Hindu iconography, and Sanskrit inscriptions. These artifacts confirm that Hindu worship and Indian artistic styles remained part of the religious and cultural landscape.
In 638 AD, a tribal chief named Lavachakkaraj was installed as king with the backing of the Lavo Kingdom. This Lavachakkaraj or "Lao dynasty" would go on to rule the area for 700 years. Later, Lao Kiang, the ninth king of Hiran, founded the city of Ngoenyang (modern Chiang Saen) around 850 CE. He moved the capital there and thus became the first King of Ngoenyang. The territorial claims of Ngoenyang extended from Chiang Saen through parts of Laos and Vietnam.
In 1262 AD, King Mangrai - the 25th King of Ngoenyang, moved the capital to Chiang Rai. He subsequently launched a conquest on of the area, and capture Haripunjaya (present day Lamphun), He consolidated both these kingdoms and restablished a new capital at Chiang Mai as the Lanna Kingdom.
Haripunjaya (629 AD - 1292 AD)
According to the Camadevivamsa (Chronicle of Queen Camadevi), a 15th-century text written by the monk Bodhiramsi, the hermit Rishi Vasuthep lived on Doi Suthep, a mountain near present-day Chiang Mai, where he received a vision to establish a righteous city in the north. He chose a site between the Ping and Kuang Rivers, an area well-suited for agriculture and naturally protected by its geography. Acknowledging that he was not fit to rule, Vasuthep invited Camadevi, a Mon princess and daughter of the King of Lavo (Lopburi), to travel north and become the ruler of the new kingdom.
Camadevi accepted the invitation and traveled north with a retinue, bringing Mon culture, religion, and administrative practices to the newly established city of Haripunjaya (modern Lamphun). Her reign symbolized the spread of Indianized Mon civilization into northern Thailand. She is often portrayed as a wise and devout Buddhist queen, though her installation also reinforces the legitimacy of Haripunjaya’s royal line through both Mon and Indian cultural roots.
Conflict with regional powers including Khmer and other Dvaravati states from the 10th century onwards, eventually weakened the kingdom. It finally fell to King Mengrai in 1292 AD, who unified the northern regions into the Lanna Kingdom. Nevertheless, the civilization played a significant role thereafter to the cultural development of the Lanna Kingdom, as evidenced from sites seen around Wiang Kum Kam, Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai.
Lanna (1292 AD - 1775 AD)
The Kingdom of Lanna or 'Kingdom of a Million Rice Fields', was essentially a continuation of the kingdom of Ngoenyang, starting with King Mangrai. The state grew in prosperity partly due to tributes received from surrounding vassal cities, as well as those from northern Loas and Vietnam.
The Lanna Kingdom was officially and predominantly Theravāda Buddhist. While Buddhism shaped daily life, monastic education, and temple construction - especially flourishing under King Tilokaraj (1441–1487), who strengthened the monastic sangha and promoted the Pali Canon - Hinduism remained embedded in the elite and ritual culture. Brahmanic court ceremonies such as coronations, city foundation rites, and astrological practices were conducted alongside Buddhist ones. Moreover, the urban layout and temple architecture of Lanna cities were often influenced by Hindu cosmological models, especially the symbolic representation of Mount Meru, reflecting a seamless blend of Buddhist faith and Hindu ritual ideology.
Not long after the reign of King Tilokaraj, the Lanna started to face internal and external pressures exerted upon it. Internal rebellion that was supported by the Kingdom of Ayutthaya, ignited a series of wars between the two states. This eventually led to Lanna becoming a tributary state under Ayutthaya.
Sukhothai (1238 AD - 1438 AD)
Sukhothai was originally a trade center within the Lavo Kingdom. A Khmer-style town first appeared at Sukhothai around 1200 AD. In 1238, the local inhabitants rebelled against their overlords and established Sukhothai as an independent state. This event was a turning point in the history of the Tai people, as it established them as a center of power.
Sanskrit was used alongside Pali and Old Thai in inscriptions, particularly for royal titles, religious terminology, and sacred concepts. Kings adopted names and titles rooted in Indic cosmology, such as "Mahadhammaraja" (Great Dharmic King), reflecting a fusion of Buddhist virtue and Hindu kingship ideals.
The kingdom was centralized and expanded to its greatest extent during the reign of King Ram Khamhaeng between 1279 – 1298 AD. The monarch propagated Theravada Buddhism, and is attributed to the invention of the Thai script. The earliest evidence of this ancient Thai writing is seen in the Ram Khamhaeng Inscription stone stele that was discovered by King Mongkut (Rama IV) nearly six centuries later. The inscription had immense influence over the development of Thai historiography from the early 20th century, which came to regard Sukhothai as the first Thai national kingdom.
Tributary states of Sukhothai began to break away after the death of King Ram Khamhaeng. In 1349, the Ayutthaya Kingdom invaded Sukhothai and made it a tributary state. It was thereafter fully annexed by Ayutthaya in 1438 after the death of Sukhothai’s 4th and last ruler.