Central States
Funan (1st to 6th Century AD)
According to Chinese chronicles (which provide the name Funan), the kingdom was founded in the centered in the lower Mekong basin, covering parts of present-day southern Vietnam and Cambodia. It is recognized as the earliest organized Indianized state in Southeast Asia.
According to preserved Chinese sources, Funan’s founding is associated with a Brahmin named Kaundinya, who arrived by sea and married a local ruler often identified as Soma, a nāga princess. While mythologized, this narrative likely encodes early interactions between incoming Indianized elites and indigenous Austroasiatic populations. Historically, Funan appears to have emerged from the consolidation of coastal and riverine trading communities into a centralized polity that could control key maritime routes between India and China.
Funan’s political organization is best understood as a mandala-style system, rather than a centralized empire in the modern sense. Authority radiated outward from a royal center - likely Vyadhapura - where the king, possibly bearing Sanskritized titles such as Shailaraja (“King of the Mountain”), presided over a network of subordinate regional rulers. This structure relied on vassalage, with local chieftains offering tribute while retaining significant autonomy, reflecting a fluid and negotiated balance of power.
Both Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced, with early royal ideology strongly aligned with Shaivism, symbolized by the linga, while the worship of Vishnu also gained prominence. By the 5th century, both Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions were flourishing alongside Hindu practices, reflecting a pluralistic religious environment. This cultural synthesis was expressed in art and architecture, including early prasat-style brick temple towers and distinctive sculptures such as mitred Vishnu figures—characterized by robust forms and cylindrical headdresses - marking an emerging regional style.
Funan cities and temples followed Indian models, including Mount Meru symbolism, Vastu principles (sacred architecture), and iconographic depictions of Hindu deities. Early sculpture from Funan shows clear Gupta-style Indian artistic influence. Funan acted as a conduit for Indian culture, passing Hindu and Buddhist ideas into what would later become the Khmer Empire and Cham Kingdoms of Cambodia and Vietnam.
The adoption of Sanskrit for royal inscriptions, along with scripts derived from the Pallava tradition of southern India, laid the linguistic and administrative foundations for later Khmer and Thai writing systems. Although many early structures were likely built from perishable materials, these artistic and religious forms set important precedents for the monumental temple architecture of later civilizations, particularly the Khmer Empire. In this way, Funan not only absorbed external influences but transformed them, creating a durable cultural framework that shaped the trajectory of Southeast Asian history.
By the 6th century CE, Funan entered a period of decline, likely driven by a combination of internal dynastic struggles and shifting regional dynamics. Changes in maritime trade—particularly the growing importance of routes through the Strait of Malacca rather than the Isthmus of Kra—reduced Funan’s strategic advantage as a key intermediary in trans-Asian commerce. The decisive blow came from its former northern vassal, Chenla, which, according to Chinese records, gradually conquered and absorbed Funan’s territories.
Dvaravati (6th to 11th Century AD)
As Funan waned, Mon-speaking groups in the Chao Phraya River basin began to coalesce into independent urban centers. Rather than a unified empire, Dvaravati is best understood as a network of Mon-speaking city-states sharing a common cultural and religious framework, with key centers such as Nakhon Pathom, U Thong, and Lopburi.
The origins of Dvaravati are closely tied to the migration and settlement of the Mon people, who likely moved into the Chao Phraya basin from areas further west (possibly Lower Myanmar). By the 6th century, these communities had established urbanized centers influenced by Indian models of kingship and cosmology. The name "Dvaravati" (meaning "That which has Gates") was confirmed by the discovery of 7th-century silver coins inscribed in Sanskrit with Sri Dvaravati Svarapunya ("The meritorious deed of the King of Dvaravati").
Evidence from inscriptions suggests the use of Mon language and scripts derived from Indian models, alongside the adoption of Indian legal and cosmological ideas, although adapted to local conditions. Strategically located along inland waterways, Dvaravati functioned as a middleman in regional and long-distance trade, linking mainland Southeast Asia to the broader Maritime Silk Road network. It facilitated the exchange of goods between major centers such as Tang Dynasty China and Pallava Kingdom. Key exports included forest products, aromatics, and tin, while imported goods such as beads and ceramics, reflect extensive commercial interaction across the Indian Ocean and South China Sea. Dvaravati was among the earliest polities in the region to adopt a standardized silver coinage, indicating a developing monetized economy. These coins often bore auspicious religious symbols such as the conch (shankha) and the Srivatsa, linking economic activity with Buddhist and Indian cosmological beliefs.
Dvaravati is especially notable for its role in the transmission and localization of Theravāda Buddhism in mainland Southeast Asia. Buddhist institutions were central to both religious and political life, with monasteries serving as hubs of learning and ritual. Architecturally, Dvaravati is associated with early stupa construction, with the great stupa at Phra Pathom Chedi is often linked to this.
Artistic production includes distinctive Buddha images characterized by frontal posture, stylized features, and symbolic gestures (mudras), as well as Dharmachakra (Wheel of Law) sculptures placed on pillars, emphasizing Buddhist doctrine. Dvaravati art reflects strong connections with Indian Gupta and post-Gupta styles, yet it developed its own regional identity, contributing significantly to the visual and religious vocabulary of later Thai civilizations.
By the 10th–11th centuries, Dvaravati declined due to a combination of internal fragmentation and external pressures, particularly the expansion of the Khmer Empire. Despite being absorbed into the growing Angkorian sphere, the Dvaravati’s legacy endured and influenced subsequent polities, including early Thai kingdoms such as Sukhothai. In this sense, Dvaravati represents a foundational layer in the historical development of Thai civilization, bridging early Indianized cultures and the later emergence of distinctly Thai states.
Lavo (648 to 1388 AD)
Centered at Lopburi, the Lavo are considered a transitional bridge in Thai history. Existing for over 700 years, it served as the cultural conveyor belt that transitioned the region from the Mon-Dvaravati Buddhist traditions to the grand Khmer imperial style, and finally into the heart of the Thai Ayutthaya Kingdom.
In the 10th century, tensions between Lavo and Haripunjaya escalated into war (925–927 AD), weakening both kingdoms and allowing Tambralinga (in present-day southern Thailand) to occupy Lavo. The Tambralinga king installed his son Kampoch as ruler, who solidified legitimacy by marrying the ex-queen of Lavo and later a Khmer princess, forging ties with the Khmer Empire. Despite continued conflict with Haripunjaya, Lavo eventually fell under Khmer control when Suryavarman I - Kampoch’s son with the Khmer princess formally absorbed Lavo into the Khmer Empire in 1022 AD.
As a vassal or ally at various times, Lavo adopted Khmer-style architecture, Sanskrit inscriptions, and Hindu royal ideology. Archaeological evidence from Lopburi includes lingams, yoni, and sculptures of Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma, indicating active Hindu worship, especially among the ruling class. Sanskrit inscriptions found in Lavo attest to the use of Indian language and ritual texts, particularly in royal proclamations and temple dedications. Like many Indianized Southeast Asian states, Lavo’s city layouts and temple complexes followed Hindu cosmological models, such as the Mount Meru-centered universe, reflecting the integration of Hindu sacred geography into urban planning.
By the 13th century, the outer provinces of the Khmer Empire were increasingly populated by Tai peoples (referred to as Syam). Despite intermarriage between Tai and Khmer elites, the Tai preserved their distinct language, social structure, and ethnic identity. Lavo, though politically part of Angkor, retained a strong Siamese character that was rooted in earlier Dvaravati tarditions.
Over time, tensions grew as the Tai began resisting Khmer dominance. In 1239, a group of Tai leaders in the north broke away from Lavo and declared independence, founding the Sukhothai Kingdom. Under King Ram Khamhaeng, Sukhothai rapidly expanded, asserting itself as a major regional power. This expansion significantly reduced Lavo’s territory and influence, confining it to its core area around Lopburi, and marking a turning point in the rise of independent Tai polities in the region.
The governance of Lavo underwent a profound transformation during the Khmer Overlordship (11th–13th Century). Following the expansion of the Khmer Empire under Suryavarman I, Lavo was reorganized into a formal "Viceroyalty" and designated as the western administrative capital of the Angkorian Empire. This era saw the adoption of more formalized administrative structures, including the Angkorian system of provincial governance. Rulers became closely tied to a Hindu-Buddhist state ideology, utilizing Sanskrit titles and elaborate court rituals that reflected strong Indianized political concepts.
In its early period, religious life was dominated by Theravada Buddhism, a legacy inherited from the Dvaravati sphere. However, as Angkorian influence grew, Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism became prominent. This religious syncretism allowed for a diverse landscape where Vedic deities and Buddhist figures were often venerated within the same culture. This spiritual evolution is most clearly visible in Lavo’s architecture, with the Phra Prang Sam Yod serving as the most iconic remnant of this era. Originally constructed as a Hindu shrine and later converted into a Buddhist temple, its three massive towers (prangs) represent the Hindu Trimurti or the Mahayana Buddhist Trinity. Built using the "laterite" stone and sandstone typical of Khmer engineering, these structures reflect Angkorian models while retaining local stylistic flourishes.