Northern States
Singhanavati (691 BC to 545 AD)
The origins of Singhanavati, as preserved in northern Thai chronicles, reflect a combination of historical memory and symbolic narrative rather than a single, unified account. These sources present differing traditions regarding the foundation of the polity, in relation to the figure of Prince Singhanavati.
According to the Tamnan (chronicles), the kingdom was founded in 691 BC by Prince Singhanavati (or Singhanti), who is said to have migrated from the city of Rajagṛha in Jambudvipa (India). This account reflects a common Southeast Asian tradition of "Indianization," where rulers claimed descent from the Buddha's Sakya clan to elevate their status.
The Singhanavati Kingdom is believed to have existed in what is now near Chiang Rai. It features prominently in early Thai chronicles such as the Chiang Mai Chronicle and Yonok Chronicle. According to legend, the kingdom was founded by an Indian Brahmin or prince named Sinhanati (also known as Sinhavarman), suggesting a strong connection to Indian lineage.
During this period, northern Thailand was part of a broader Southeast Asian region that experienced significant Indian cultural influence, a process often referred to as Indianization. This influence extended beyond political models to include language (Sanskrit), scripts, royal rituals, and key religious ideas such as divine kingship (Devaraja).
Although direct archeological evidence from Singhanavati itself is scarce, partly due to its semi-legendary nature, the neighboring areas like Chiang Saen and Phayao offer important clues. These regions have yielded Indianized art, lingams (phallic symbols associated with Shiva), and Sanskrit inscriptions, all pointing to a tangible Hindu presence in the region during and after the Singhanavati era.
The Singhanavati Kingdom is believed to have collapsed into Chiang Saen Lake following a devastating earthquake in 545 AD. In the aftermath, surviving communities gradually resettled along the Doi Tung mountain range, establishing new highland settlements. This marked the end of the Singhanavati era and paved the way for the rise of the Hiran-Ngoenyang Kingdom, which would later become a significant power in the region.
The decline of Singhanavati is traditionally dated to around 545 CE, when the city of Yonok was said to have been destroyed, sometimes described as sinking into a lake following a catastrophic event such as an earthquake. In the aftermath, the region appears to have given rise to successor polities, most notably the Hiran–Ngoenyang Kingdom.
Hiran-Ngoenyang (545 AD - 1292 AD)
Survivors of the earthquake that destroyed Singhanavati, later established a new city state centered in Hiran, around Chiang Rai today. Primarily known through northern Thai chronicles such as the Tamnan Singhanavati, it is widely regarded as a formative precursor to the rise of the Lanna Kingdom,
In 638 AD, a tribal chief named Lavachakkaraj was installed as king with the backing of the Lavo Kingdom. This Lavachakkaraj or "Lao dynasty" would go on to rule the area for 700 years. Later, Lao Kiang, the ninth king of Hiran, founded the city of Ngoenyang (modern Chiang Saen) around 850 CE. He moved the capital there and thus became the first King of Ngoenyang. The territorial claims of Ngoenyang extended from Chiang Saen through parts of Laos and Vietnam.
In 1262 AD, King Mangrai - the 25th King of Ngoenyang, moved the capital to Chiang Rai. He subsequently launched a conquest on of the area, and consolidated both these kingdoms to establish a new capital at Chiang Mai.
Haripunjaya (629 - 1292 AD)
Centered in present-day Lamphun, archaeological and epigraphic evidence confirms Haripunjaya as a Mon-Dvaravati cultural outpost. According to the chronicles, Haripunjaya was founded by a hermit named Rishi Vasuthep, who found support from Mon communities to build a city at the fertile Ping River valley.
Rishi Vasuthep, not being of royal lineage, he invited the king of Lavo to rule. The monarch however sent his daughter, Chamadevi, to be installed as the first ruler. The queen would later give birth to twins, with the older becoming ruler of Lamphun, and the younger becoming ruler of Lampang.
While initially a Dvaravati vassal, Haripunjaya later became independent state with its own ruling dynasty over subsequent generations. It flourished through the development of irrigation practices, legal and administrative systems, as well as literature and artistic expression. Archaeological remains, inscriptions in Mon script, and surviving monuments point to a highly developed religious landscape centered on Buddhist doctrine, monastic communities, and merit-making practices.
Culturally, Haripunjaya was a major center of Theravāda Buddhism, heavily influenced by Mon and Indian traditions. It played a crucial role in transmitting Buddhist doctrine, art styles, and architectural forms to northern Thailand. Artistically, Haripunjaya produced distinctive Buddha images and votive tablets that exhibit strong Dvaravati stylistic features - such as rounded faces, stylized hair curls, and symbolic gestures.
Conflict with regional powers including Khmer and other Dvaravati states from the 10th century onwards, eventually weakened the kingdom. It finally fell to King Mengrai in 1292 AD, who unified the northern regions into the Lanna Kingdom.
Lanna (1292 AD - 1775 AD)
The Kingdom of Lanna or 'Kingdom of a Million Rice Fields', was essentially a continuation of the kingdom of Ngoenyang. Founded by King Mangrai, Lanna - meaning “Land of a Million Rice Fields” - was established at Chiang Mai.
The Lanna Kingdom was officially and predominantly Theravāda Buddhist. While Buddhism shaped daily life, monastic education, and temple construction - especially flourishing under King Tilokaraj (1441–1487), who strengthened the monastic sangha and promoted the Pali Canon - Hinduism remained embedded in the elite and ritual culture. Brahmanic court ceremonies such as coronations, city foundation rites, and astrological practices were conducted alongside Buddhist ones. Moreover, the urban layout and temple architecture of Lanna cities were often influenced by Hindu cosmological models, especially the symbolic representation of Mount Meru, reflecting a seamless blend of Buddhist faith and Hindu ritual ideology.
From the 16th century onward, Lanna gradually declined, falling under Burmese domination in 1558. It remained under varying degrees of Burmese control until the late 18th century, when it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Siam.